Because the world struggles to cut back climate-warming carbon emissions, India has pledged to do its half, and its success is vital: In 2023, India was the third-largest carbon emitter worldwide. The Indian authorities has dedicated to having net-zero carbon emissions by 2070.
To meet that promise, India might want to decarbonize its electrical energy system, and that might be a problem: Absolutely 60 % of India’s electrical energy comes from coal-burning energy vegetation which might be extraordinarily inefficient. To make issues worse, the demand for electrical energy in India is projected to greater than double within the coming decade attributable to inhabitants development and elevated use of air con, electrical vehicles, and so forth.
Regardless of having set an bold goal, the Indian authorities has not proposed a plan for getting there. Certainly, as in different nations, in India the federal government continues to allow new coal-fired energy vegetation to be constructed, and getting older vegetation to be renovated and their retirement postponed.
To assist India outline an efficient — and practical — plan for decarbonizing its energy system, key questions should be addressed. For instance, India is already quickly creating carbon-free photo voltaic and wind energy mills. What alternatives stay for additional deployment of renewable technology? Are there methods to retrofit or repurpose India’s current coal vegetation that may considerably and affordably cut back their greenhouse fuel emissions? And do the responses to these questions differ by area?
With funding from IHI Corp. by way of the MIT Vitality Initiative (MITEI), Yifu Ding, a postdoc at MITEI, and her colleagues got down to reply these questions by first utilizing machine studying to find out the effectivity of every of India’s present 806 coal vegetation, after which investigating the impacts that totally different decarbonization approaches would have on the combination of energy vegetation and the worth of electrical energy in 2035 beneath more and more stringent caps on emissions.
First step: Develop the wanted dataset
An vital problem in creating a decarbonization plan for India has been the dearth of a whole dataset describing the present energy vegetation in India. Whereas different research have generated plans, they haven’t taken under consideration the huge variation within the coal-fired energy vegetation in numerous areas of the nation. “So, we first wanted to create a dataset overlaying and characterizing all the working coal vegetation in India. Such a dataset was not accessible within the current literature,” says Ding.
Making a cheap plan for increasing the capability of an influence system requires figuring out the efficiencies of all the ability vegetation working within the system. For this examine, the researchers used as their metric the “station warmth fee,” an ordinary measurement of the general gasoline effectivity of a given energy plant. The station warmth fee of every plant is required in an effort to calculate the gasoline consumption and energy output of that plant as plans for capability growth are being developed.
A few of the Indian coal vegetation’ efficiencies have been recorded earlier than 2022, so Ding and her group used machine-learning fashions to foretell the efficiencies of all of the Indian coal vegetation working now. In 2024, they created and posted on-line the primary complete, open-sourced dataset for all 806 energy vegetation in 30 areas of India. The work gained the 2024 MIT Open Knowledge Prize. This dataset contains every plant’s energy capability, effectivity, age, load issue (a measure indicating how a lot of the time it operates), water stress, and extra.
As well as, they categorized every plant in response to its boiler design. A “supercritical” plant operates at a comparatively excessive temperature and strain, which makes it thermodynamically environment friendly, so it produces a number of electrical energy for every unit of warmth within the gasoline. A “subcritical” plant runs at a decrease temperature and strain, so it’s much less thermodynamically environment friendly. A lot of the Indian coal vegetation are nonetheless subcritical vegetation operating at low effectivity.
Subsequent step: Examine decarbonization choices
Outfitted with their detailed dataset overlaying all of the coal energy vegetation in India, the researchers have been prepared to analyze choices for responding to tightening limits on carbon emissions. For that evaluation, they turned to GenX, a modeling platform that was developed at MITEI to assist information decision-makers as they make investments and different plans for the way forward for their energy programs.
Ding constructed a GenX mannequin based mostly on India’s energy system in 2020, together with particulars about every energy plant and transmission community throughout 30 areas of the nation. She additionally entered the coal value, potential assets for wind and solar energy installations, and different attributes of every area. Primarily based on the parameters given, the GenX mannequin would calculate the lowest-cost mixture of apparatus and working circumstances that may fulfill an outlined future stage of demand whereas additionally assembly specified coverage constraints, together with limits on carbon emissions. The mannequin and all knowledge sources have been additionally launched as open-source instruments for all viewers to make use of.
Ding and her colleagues — Dharik Mallapragada, a former principal analysis scientist at MITEI who’s now an assistant professor of chemical and biomolecular power at NYU Tandon College of Engineering and a MITEI visiting scientist; and Robert J. Stoner, the founding director of the MIT Tata Middle for Expertise and Design and former deputy director of MITEI for science and expertise — then used the mannequin to discover choices for assembly calls for in 2035 beneath progressively tighter carbon emissions caps, taking into consideration region-to-region variations within the efficiencies of the coal vegetation, the worth of coal, and different components. They describe their strategies and their findings in a paper revealed within the journal Vitality for Sustainable Growth.
In separate runs, they explored plans involving varied mixtures of present coal vegetation, doable new renewable vegetation, and extra, to see their end result in 2035. Particularly, they assumed the next 4 “grid-evolution eventualities:”
Baseline: The baseline situation assumes restricted onshore wind and photo voltaic photovoltaics growth and excludes retrofitting choices, representing a business-as-usual pathway.
Excessive renewable capability: This situation requires the event of onshore wind and solar energy with none provide chain constraints.
Biomass co-firing: This situation assumes the baseline limits on renewables, however right here all coal vegetation — each subcritical and supercritical — may be retrofitted for “co-firing” with biomass, an strategy wherein clean-burning biomass replaces a number of the coal gasoline. Sure coal energy vegetation in India already co-fire coal and biomass, so the expertise is understood.
Carbon seize and sequestration plus biomass co-firing: This situation is predicated on the identical assumptions because the biomass co-firing situation with one addition: The entire high-efficiency supercritical vegetation are additionally retrofitted for carbon seize and sequestration (CCS), a expertise that captures and removes carbon from an influence plant’s exhaust stream and prepares it for everlasting disposal. To this point, CCS has not been utilized in India. This examine specifies that 90 % of all carbon within the energy plant exhaust is captured.
Ding and her group investigated energy system planning beneath every of these grid-evolution eventualities and 4 assumptions about carbon caps: no cap, which is the present scenario; 1,000 million tons (Mt) of carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions, which displays India’s introduced targets for 2035; and two more-ambitious targets, specifically 800 Mt and 500 Mt. For context, CO2 emissions from India’s energy sector totaled about 1,100 Mt in 2021. (Word that transmission community growth is allowed in all eventualities.)
Key findings
Assuming the adoption of carbon caps beneath the 4 eventualities generated an enormous array of detailed numerical outcomes. However taken collectively, the outcomes present attention-grabbing developments within the cost-optimal mixture of producing capability and the price of electrical energy beneath the totally different eventualities.
Even with none limits on carbon emissions, most new capability additions might be wind and photo voltaic mills — the lowest-cost possibility for increasing India’s electricity-generation capability. Certainly, that is noticed to be the case now in India. Nevertheless, the growing demand for electrical energy will nonetheless require some new coal vegetation to be constructed. Mannequin outcomes present a ten to twenty % enhance in coal plant capability by 2035 relative to 2020.
Below the baseline situation, renewables are expanded as much as the utmost allowed beneath the assumptions, implying that extra deployment could be economical. Extra coal capability is constructed, and because the cap on emissions tightens, there may be additionally funding in pure fuel energy vegetation, in addition to batteries to assist compensate for the now-large quantity of intermittent photo voltaic and wind technology. When a 500 Mt cap on carbon is imposed, the price of electrical energy technology is twice as excessive because it was with no cap.
The excessive renewable capability situation reduces the event of latest coal capability and produces the bottom electrical energy price of the 4 eventualities. Below probably the most stringent cap — 500 Mt — onshore wind farms play an vital function in bringing the price down. “In any other case, it’ll be very costly to succeed in such stringent carbon constraints,” notes Ding. “Sure coal vegetation that stay run just a few hours per yr, so are inefficient in addition to financially unviable. However they nonetheless must be there to help wind and photo voltaic.” She explains that different backup sources of electrical energy, equivalent to batteries, are much more pricey.
The biomass co-firing situation assumes the identical capability restrict on renewables as within the baseline situation, and the outcomes are a lot the identical, partially as a result of the biomass replaces such a low fraction — simply 20 % — of the coal within the gasoline feedstock. “This situation could be most much like the present scenario in India,” says Ding. “It gained’t carry down the price of electrical energy, so we’re mainly saying that including this expertise doesn’t contribute successfully to decarbonization.”
However CCS plus biomass co-firing is a unique story. It additionally assumes the bounds on renewables growth, but it’s the second-best possibility when it comes to decreasing prices. Below the five hundred Mt cap on CO2 emissions, retrofitting for each CCS and biomass co-firing produces a 22 % discount in the price of electrical energy in comparison with the baseline situation. As well as, because the carbon cap tightens, this selection reduces the extent of deployment of pure fuel vegetation and considerably improves total coal plant utilization. That elevated utilization “signifies that coal vegetation have switched from simply assembly the height demand to supplying a part of the baseline load, which can decrease the price of coal technology,” explains Ding.
Some considerations
Whereas these developments are enlightening, the analyses additionally uncovered some considerations for India to contemplate, particularly, with the 2 approaches that yielded the bottom electrical energy prices.
The excessive renewables situation is, Ding notes, “very excellent.” It assumes that there might be little limiting the event of wind and photo voltaic capability, so there gained’t be any points with provide chains, which is unrealistic. Extra importantly, the analyses confirmed that implementing the excessive renewables strategy would create uneven funding in renewables throughout the 30 areas. Assets for onshore and offshore wind farms are primarily concentrated in a number of areas in western and southern India. “So all of the wind farms could be put in these areas, close to the place the wealthy cities are,” says Ding. “The poorer cities on the jap facet, the place the coal energy vegetation are, can have little renewable funding.”
So the strategy that’s finest when it comes to price shouldn’t be finest when it comes to social welfare, as a result of it tends to profit the wealthy areas greater than the poor ones. “It’s like [the government will] want to contemplate the trade-off between power justice and value,” says Ding. Enacting state-level renewable technology targets may encourage a extra even distribution of renewable capability set up. Additionally, as transmission growth is deliberate, coordination amongst energy system operators and renewable power buyers in numerous areas may assist in reaching one of the best end result.
CCS plus biomass co-firing — the second-best possibility for decreasing costs — solves the fairness downside posed by excessive renewables, and it assumes a extra practical stage of renewable energy adoption. Nevertheless, CCS hasn’t been utilized in India, so there isn’t any precedent when it comes to prices. The researchers subsequently based mostly their price estimates on the price of CCS in China after which elevated the required funding by 10 %, the “first-of-a-kind” index developed by the U.S. Vitality Info Administration. Primarily based on these prices and different assumptions, the researchers conclude that coal vegetation with CCS may come into use by 2035 when the carbon cap for energy technology is lower than 1,000 Mt.
However will CCS truly be carried out in India? Whereas there’s been dialogue about utilizing CCS in heavy trade, the Indian authorities has not introduced any plans for implementing the expertise in coal-fired energy vegetation. Certainly, India is at the moment “very conservative about CCS,” says Ding. “Some researchers say CCS gained’t occur as a result of it’s so costly, and so long as there’s no direct use for the captured carbon, the one factor you are able to do is put it within the floor.” She provides, “It’s actually controversial to speak about whether or not CCS might be carried out in India within the subsequent 10 years.”
Ding and her colleagues hope that different researchers and policymakers — particularly these working in creating nations — might profit from getting access to their datasets and studying about their strategies. Primarily based on their findings for India, she stresses the significance of understanding the detailed geographical scenario in a rustic in an effort to design plans and insurance policies which might be each practical and equitable.
Because the world struggles to cut back climate-warming carbon emissions, India has pledged to do its half, and its success is vital: In 2023, India was the third-largest carbon emitter worldwide. The Indian authorities has dedicated to having net-zero carbon emissions by 2070.
To meet that promise, India might want to decarbonize its electrical energy system, and that might be a problem: Absolutely 60 % of India’s electrical energy comes from coal-burning energy vegetation which might be extraordinarily inefficient. To make issues worse, the demand for electrical energy in India is projected to greater than double within the coming decade attributable to inhabitants development and elevated use of air con, electrical vehicles, and so forth.
Regardless of having set an bold goal, the Indian authorities has not proposed a plan for getting there. Certainly, as in different nations, in India the federal government continues to allow new coal-fired energy vegetation to be constructed, and getting older vegetation to be renovated and their retirement postponed.
To assist India outline an efficient — and practical — plan for decarbonizing its energy system, key questions should be addressed. For instance, India is already quickly creating carbon-free photo voltaic and wind energy mills. What alternatives stay for additional deployment of renewable technology? Are there methods to retrofit or repurpose India’s current coal vegetation that may considerably and affordably cut back their greenhouse fuel emissions? And do the responses to these questions differ by area?
With funding from IHI Corp. by way of the MIT Vitality Initiative (MITEI), Yifu Ding, a postdoc at MITEI, and her colleagues got down to reply these questions by first utilizing machine studying to find out the effectivity of every of India’s present 806 coal vegetation, after which investigating the impacts that totally different decarbonization approaches would have on the combination of energy vegetation and the worth of electrical energy in 2035 beneath more and more stringent caps on emissions.
First step: Develop the wanted dataset
An vital problem in creating a decarbonization plan for India has been the dearth of a whole dataset describing the present energy vegetation in India. Whereas different research have generated plans, they haven’t taken under consideration the huge variation within the coal-fired energy vegetation in numerous areas of the nation. “So, we first wanted to create a dataset overlaying and characterizing all the working coal vegetation in India. Such a dataset was not accessible within the current literature,” says Ding.
Making a cheap plan for increasing the capability of an influence system requires figuring out the efficiencies of all the ability vegetation working within the system. For this examine, the researchers used as their metric the “station warmth fee,” an ordinary measurement of the general gasoline effectivity of a given energy plant. The station warmth fee of every plant is required in an effort to calculate the gasoline consumption and energy output of that plant as plans for capability growth are being developed.
A few of the Indian coal vegetation’ efficiencies have been recorded earlier than 2022, so Ding and her group used machine-learning fashions to foretell the efficiencies of all of the Indian coal vegetation working now. In 2024, they created and posted on-line the primary complete, open-sourced dataset for all 806 energy vegetation in 30 areas of India. The work gained the 2024 MIT Open Knowledge Prize. This dataset contains every plant’s energy capability, effectivity, age, load issue (a measure indicating how a lot of the time it operates), water stress, and extra.
As well as, they categorized every plant in response to its boiler design. A “supercritical” plant operates at a comparatively excessive temperature and strain, which makes it thermodynamically environment friendly, so it produces a number of electrical energy for every unit of warmth within the gasoline. A “subcritical” plant runs at a decrease temperature and strain, so it’s much less thermodynamically environment friendly. A lot of the Indian coal vegetation are nonetheless subcritical vegetation operating at low effectivity.
Subsequent step: Examine decarbonization choices
Outfitted with their detailed dataset overlaying all of the coal energy vegetation in India, the researchers have been prepared to analyze choices for responding to tightening limits on carbon emissions. For that evaluation, they turned to GenX, a modeling platform that was developed at MITEI to assist information decision-makers as they make investments and different plans for the way forward for their energy programs.
Ding constructed a GenX mannequin based mostly on India’s energy system in 2020, together with particulars about every energy plant and transmission community throughout 30 areas of the nation. She additionally entered the coal value, potential assets for wind and solar energy installations, and different attributes of every area. Primarily based on the parameters given, the GenX mannequin would calculate the lowest-cost mixture of apparatus and working circumstances that may fulfill an outlined future stage of demand whereas additionally assembly specified coverage constraints, together with limits on carbon emissions. The mannequin and all knowledge sources have been additionally launched as open-source instruments for all viewers to make use of.
Ding and her colleagues — Dharik Mallapragada, a former principal analysis scientist at MITEI who’s now an assistant professor of chemical and biomolecular power at NYU Tandon College of Engineering and a MITEI visiting scientist; and Robert J. Stoner, the founding director of the MIT Tata Middle for Expertise and Design and former deputy director of MITEI for science and expertise — then used the mannequin to discover choices for assembly calls for in 2035 beneath progressively tighter carbon emissions caps, taking into consideration region-to-region variations within the efficiencies of the coal vegetation, the worth of coal, and different components. They describe their strategies and their findings in a paper revealed within the journal Vitality for Sustainable Growth.
In separate runs, they explored plans involving varied mixtures of present coal vegetation, doable new renewable vegetation, and extra, to see their end result in 2035. Particularly, they assumed the next 4 “grid-evolution eventualities:”
Baseline: The baseline situation assumes restricted onshore wind and photo voltaic photovoltaics growth and excludes retrofitting choices, representing a business-as-usual pathway.
Excessive renewable capability: This situation requires the event of onshore wind and solar energy with none provide chain constraints.
Biomass co-firing: This situation assumes the baseline limits on renewables, however right here all coal vegetation — each subcritical and supercritical — may be retrofitted for “co-firing” with biomass, an strategy wherein clean-burning biomass replaces a number of the coal gasoline. Sure coal energy vegetation in India already co-fire coal and biomass, so the expertise is understood.
Carbon seize and sequestration plus biomass co-firing: This situation is predicated on the identical assumptions because the biomass co-firing situation with one addition: The entire high-efficiency supercritical vegetation are additionally retrofitted for carbon seize and sequestration (CCS), a expertise that captures and removes carbon from an influence plant’s exhaust stream and prepares it for everlasting disposal. To this point, CCS has not been utilized in India. This examine specifies that 90 % of all carbon within the energy plant exhaust is captured.
Ding and her group investigated energy system planning beneath every of these grid-evolution eventualities and 4 assumptions about carbon caps: no cap, which is the present scenario; 1,000 million tons (Mt) of carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions, which displays India’s introduced targets for 2035; and two more-ambitious targets, specifically 800 Mt and 500 Mt. For context, CO2 emissions from India’s energy sector totaled about 1,100 Mt in 2021. (Word that transmission community growth is allowed in all eventualities.)
Key findings
Assuming the adoption of carbon caps beneath the 4 eventualities generated an enormous array of detailed numerical outcomes. However taken collectively, the outcomes present attention-grabbing developments within the cost-optimal mixture of producing capability and the price of electrical energy beneath the totally different eventualities.
Even with none limits on carbon emissions, most new capability additions might be wind and photo voltaic mills — the lowest-cost possibility for increasing India’s electricity-generation capability. Certainly, that is noticed to be the case now in India. Nevertheless, the growing demand for electrical energy will nonetheless require some new coal vegetation to be constructed. Mannequin outcomes present a ten to twenty % enhance in coal plant capability by 2035 relative to 2020.
Below the baseline situation, renewables are expanded as much as the utmost allowed beneath the assumptions, implying that extra deployment could be economical. Extra coal capability is constructed, and because the cap on emissions tightens, there may be additionally funding in pure fuel energy vegetation, in addition to batteries to assist compensate for the now-large quantity of intermittent photo voltaic and wind technology. When a 500 Mt cap on carbon is imposed, the price of electrical energy technology is twice as excessive because it was with no cap.
The excessive renewable capability situation reduces the event of latest coal capability and produces the bottom electrical energy price of the 4 eventualities. Below probably the most stringent cap — 500 Mt — onshore wind farms play an vital function in bringing the price down. “In any other case, it’ll be very costly to succeed in such stringent carbon constraints,” notes Ding. “Sure coal vegetation that stay run just a few hours per yr, so are inefficient in addition to financially unviable. However they nonetheless must be there to help wind and photo voltaic.” She explains that different backup sources of electrical energy, equivalent to batteries, are much more pricey.
The biomass co-firing situation assumes the identical capability restrict on renewables as within the baseline situation, and the outcomes are a lot the identical, partially as a result of the biomass replaces such a low fraction — simply 20 % — of the coal within the gasoline feedstock. “This situation could be most much like the present scenario in India,” says Ding. “It gained’t carry down the price of electrical energy, so we’re mainly saying that including this expertise doesn’t contribute successfully to decarbonization.”
However CCS plus biomass co-firing is a unique story. It additionally assumes the bounds on renewables growth, but it’s the second-best possibility when it comes to decreasing prices. Below the five hundred Mt cap on CO2 emissions, retrofitting for each CCS and biomass co-firing produces a 22 % discount in the price of electrical energy in comparison with the baseline situation. As well as, because the carbon cap tightens, this selection reduces the extent of deployment of pure fuel vegetation and considerably improves total coal plant utilization. That elevated utilization “signifies that coal vegetation have switched from simply assembly the height demand to supplying a part of the baseline load, which can decrease the price of coal technology,” explains Ding.
Some considerations
Whereas these developments are enlightening, the analyses additionally uncovered some considerations for India to contemplate, particularly, with the 2 approaches that yielded the bottom electrical energy prices.
The excessive renewables situation is, Ding notes, “very excellent.” It assumes that there might be little limiting the event of wind and photo voltaic capability, so there gained’t be any points with provide chains, which is unrealistic. Extra importantly, the analyses confirmed that implementing the excessive renewables strategy would create uneven funding in renewables throughout the 30 areas. Assets for onshore and offshore wind farms are primarily concentrated in a number of areas in western and southern India. “So all of the wind farms could be put in these areas, close to the place the wealthy cities are,” says Ding. “The poorer cities on the jap facet, the place the coal energy vegetation are, can have little renewable funding.”
So the strategy that’s finest when it comes to price shouldn’t be finest when it comes to social welfare, as a result of it tends to profit the wealthy areas greater than the poor ones. “It’s like [the government will] want to contemplate the trade-off between power justice and value,” says Ding. Enacting state-level renewable technology targets may encourage a extra even distribution of renewable capability set up. Additionally, as transmission growth is deliberate, coordination amongst energy system operators and renewable power buyers in numerous areas may assist in reaching one of the best end result.
CCS plus biomass co-firing — the second-best possibility for decreasing costs — solves the fairness downside posed by excessive renewables, and it assumes a extra practical stage of renewable energy adoption. Nevertheless, CCS hasn’t been utilized in India, so there isn’t any precedent when it comes to prices. The researchers subsequently based mostly their price estimates on the price of CCS in China after which elevated the required funding by 10 %, the “first-of-a-kind” index developed by the U.S. Vitality Info Administration. Primarily based on these prices and different assumptions, the researchers conclude that coal vegetation with CCS may come into use by 2035 when the carbon cap for energy technology is lower than 1,000 Mt.
However will CCS truly be carried out in India? Whereas there’s been dialogue about utilizing CCS in heavy trade, the Indian authorities has not introduced any plans for implementing the expertise in coal-fired energy vegetation. Certainly, India is at the moment “very conservative about CCS,” says Ding. “Some researchers say CCS gained’t occur as a result of it’s so costly, and so long as there’s no direct use for the captured carbon, the one factor you are able to do is put it within the floor.” She provides, “It’s actually controversial to speak about whether or not CCS might be carried out in India within the subsequent 10 years.”
Ding and her colleagues hope that different researchers and policymakers — particularly these working in creating nations — might profit from getting access to their datasets and studying about their strategies. Primarily based on their findings for India, she stresses the significance of understanding the detailed geographical scenario in a rustic in an effort to design plans and insurance policies which might be each practical and equitable.
